The definition of Stoicism as a philosophy is not the same as being lowercase s stoical—it is not being immune to feelings and emotions. Rather, Stoicism beliefs guide us to down-regulate negative emotions and promote well-being. Stoicism is a philosophy of life that brings you into harmony with nature, with what is.
Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, in his Meditations, says “nothing can happen to me that isn’t natural” and later that “nothing natural is evil”. And in Stoic philosophy, this harmony with reality is the source of wisdom and tranquility in life, something much more valuable than even happiness.
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Stoicism, founded in the 3rd century BC by Zeno of Citium, is one of the most influential philosophies from the Hellenistic period of ancient Greece. And since the end of the 20th century, it has been undergoing an impressive revival.
The name comes from the “stoa” or porch in Athens where Zeno gave his lectures. Following Zeno’s death, Stoicism would continue to develop first under Zeno’s pupil Cleanthes and later under Cleanthes’s pupil Chrysippus. They and other Greek philosophers provided the more academic underpinnings of Stoicism, but only fragments survive from their writings.
Luckily, Stoic philosophy spread to other areas after Chrysippus’s death, most notably to Rome. Stoicism particularly resonated with the Roman aristocracy and according to Gregory Hays became “the real religion of upper-class Romans”. The most notable Roman Stoics were Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius.
But what is Stoicism?
This article will answer that less from the academic and historical perspective and more from the personal and practical wisdom of Roman Stoicism. The Roman Stoics had specific techniques for avoiding negative emotions and improving one’s life. Stoicism as a philosophy of self-improvement also fits in well with Exploring Kodawari’s approach to life.
But before giving the definition of Stoicism, let’s first highlight the importance of having any kind of philosophy of life to guide you.
A Philosophy of Life
In modern times, the word philosopher usually induces the image of a university department. University philosophers specialize in metaphysics, politics, logic, etc, and usually study those topics in a theoretical way. They might teach certain ethics and principles in their lectures, but it’s not obvious that they would actually live by them.
But the thinkers of ancient philosophy—especially Roman and Greek philosophy—had a different conception of the endeavor. They too had academic motivations for being philosophical—such as epistemology, logic, rhetoric, and physics—but they pursued those interests in the service of something else: a philosophy of life.
For them, developing a philosophy of life—a doctrine for living a virtuous and good life—was the entire reason for studying philosophy. Such a philosophy wasn’t purely abstract and theoretical but also practical and hands-on. A human being ought to live out their chosen philosophy to be a wise man and live with virtue.
And Ancient philosophers formed schools to teach their various wisdom to others. The Cynic school, developed by a student of Socrates named Antisthenes, promoted a monastic life of discipline and abstinence from pleasure. On the other end of the spectrum, the Cyrenaic school—one of the first Socratic schools— pushed for a hedonistic lifestyle. For them, the only truth they could know for sure was their direct sense-experience, making physical pleasure the ultimate good in life.
Epicurus had a similarly hedonistic school of philosophy that challenged the moderation of Platonic thinkers, although with more sophistication than the Cyrenaic school. Epicurean beliefs stated that one ought to extract as much pleasure as possible in life, but Epicureanism also taught enough self-control to avoid the pitfalls of overindulgence.
But most relevant to this article—and a rival to Epicurus—was the Stoic school of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium. Stoicism began as a Greek philosophy but later evolved from these Athenian roots to become a life doctrine for upper-class Romans, including the emperor Marcus Aurelius. It is this Roman Stoicism that is most suitable to the modern individual looking to improve their well-being.
A Grand Goal in Life
The key to a philosophy of life is having a hierarchy of values and goals. What is worth pursuing in life? What do you most want out of your life?
And it turns out that answering these questions is much harder than it appears. Setting daily or monthly goals is easier, but stating your big life goals and putting them into a hierarchy is intimidating.
Why do your goals need to be in a hierarchy? Because if two or more goals conflict, then you have to know which one prevails. And at the top of such a hierarchy is your grand goal, or as William Irvine, author of the Stoic book A Guide to the Good Life puts it, “the goal that we should be unwilling to sacrifice to attain other goals”.
So there are two main components to a philosophy of life:
- In the most zoomed-out perspective, what do you want out of life? Of all the goals both short and long term, which one is the most valuable?
- What strategy will you implement in order to attain that goal?
Most people will freeze at the first question. While they have probably made a plan for their life—career, house, family, etc—they probably haven’t made a plan for how to live. And modern life makes this aimless life far too easy. As Irvine says at the opening of his book:
“Our culture doesn’t encourage people to think about such things; indeed, it provides them with an endless stream of distractions so they won’t ever have to. But a grand goal in living is the first component of a philosophy of life. This means that if you lack a grand goal in living, you lack a coherent philosophy of life.”
william ırvine, A guide to the good lıfe
Luckily, Stoicism has answers to both of those questions. But even if Stoicism does not become your philosophy of life, hopefully, you can see the value of having some kind of philosophy to guide you.
The Definition of Stoicism
The definition of Stoicism, at least the Roman version most applicable to ordinary people, is more ethical and personal. It helps an individual live a better life. The motivation for adopting it is nicely expressed by a series of questions posed by Gregory Hays in his introduction to Marcus Aurelius:
“The questions that the Meditations tries to answer are primarily metaphysical and ethical ones: Why are we here? How should we live our lives? How can we ensure that what we do is right? How can we protect ourselves against the stresses and pressures of daily life? How should we deal with pain and misfortune? How can we live with the knowledge that someday we will no longer exist?”
Gregory hays
These ethical questions especially express the definition of Stoicism from the Roman perspective. While the Greeks like Chrysippus spent more time on theoretical concepts such as logic and physics, these were not the focus for Roman Stoics like Marcus Aurelius. At the end of Book 1, Marcus even gives thanks to the gods that he “didn’t get bogged down in writing treatises, or become absorbed by logic-chopping, or preoccupied with physics”.
Tranquility
“Because most of what we say and do is not essential. If you can eliminate it, you’ll have more time, and more tranquillity. Ask yourself at every moment, ‘Is this necessary?’ “
Marcus Aurelius, Medıtatıons
With the philosophy of life framing, the definition of Stoicism can be summed up by stating its grand goal for living, tranquility.
Tranquility, or ataraxia in Greek, is a state of equanimity similar to the goal of Buddhist mindfulness meditation. It does not mean being immune to emotions (like the modern word stoical) or having neutral emotions. Instead, it means a kind of framing that contains the whole range of emotional experiences, one that puts you at peace with the world. A Stoic will observe their own life carefully and practice specific techniques for avoiding negative emotions and maintaining tranquility.
So the goal of Stoicism is not happiness—tranquility is something more subtle. A state of constant happiness, even though it’s probably not psychologically attainable, is also not something you would want. Life will have external challenges and setbacks. But Stoic principles provide an internal framing for these setbacks that prevents suffering and promotes joy. As Marcus Aurelius said:
“The impediment to action advances action. What stands in the way becomes the way.”
marcus aurelius, Medıtatıons
Stoic wisdom tells us that it is usually our reaction to a setback in life, not the setback itself, that causes suffering. Aiming at the goal of tranquility, especially of accepting what we cannot control, will provide a deeper sense of well-being amid life’s challenges. Stoics believe—and you can try their techniques for yourself—that positive emotion will automatically follow the acceptance of Stoic principles.
Stoicism Beliefs
In addition to the goal of tranquility, the definition of Stoicism can also be expressed through some of the fundamental Stoic beliefs. If you internalize the logic and connection between these Stoic beliefs, it will help you to understand the philosophy.
I do not think one has to become irrational or unscientific to become a Stoic, but accepting the premise and logic of these Stoicism beliefs seems a necessary prerequisite for attaining Stoic tranquility.
Determinism & Logos
Like all philosophies, Stoicism requires some underlying assumptions to make sense. The first is that the universe follows a rational and predetermined chain of cause and effect. This is supported by the concept of determinism in modern physics, which states that all matter in the universe—from the beginning of time until now—follows a chain reaction according to the laws of physics.
The Stoics thought of this determinism as a cosmic force that they called the Logos. Logos on the universal scale is synonymous with nature or God, and it organized the world in a coherent way. The universal Logos determined fate in Stoic philosophy, but on the personal scale, logos was the ability for the individual to think and reason.
“It was for the best. So Nature had no choice but to do it.”
marcus aurelıus
A second crucial assumption was that the Logos is good. To find tranquility against the challenges of life, one has to assume that the overall design, nature as a whole, is harmonious and good (not indifferent). In this view, bad fate is ultimately good if it advances the overall design of the Logos.1
Does that mean that we don’t have free will? The Stoics worked this out by emphasizing the control we had over our internal psychology. As Gregory Hays writes, the Stoics defined free will as “a voluntary accommodation to what is in any case inevitable”.2
Everything Changes
“Whatever the nature of the whole does, and whatever serves to maintain it, is good for every part of nature. The world is maintained by change—in the elements and in the things they compose. That should be enough for you; treat it as an axiom.”
marcus aurelıus
In sync with the determinism of the Logos, another Stoicism belief is the concept that everything is always changing. This echoes the famous words of Heraclitus that “the only thing constant is change”, including ourselves.
Marcus says that “there is nothing nature loves more than to alter what exists and make new things like it”. The emphasis on accepting change in Stoicism echoes Buddhist teachings that warn against getting attached to the externals.
That is because the externals are always changing, and it is unwise to anchor our well-being to something unreliable. Like Zen Buddhism, Stoicism emphasizes the transitory nature of everything so that we can learn to overcome our insatiable desires.
As we will see later, the concept of change also leads to the logical realization that we must accept our own change and eventual death.
The Dichotomy of Control
The first two Stoicism beliefs emphasize the overall design of the universe, the constant change of cause and effect. And in the face of that, Epictetus opens his Handbook with the following:
“Some things are up to us and some are not up to us.”
Epıctetus
This concept is known as the dichotomy of control. It states that we should understand what we do and do not have self-control over. If we spend time worrying about external events that we can’t control, we will suffer. So it is much wiser to spend time on affecting what we can definitely control, namely our internal goals and desires.
William Irvine avoids the potential false dichotomy by reworking this into the trichotomy of control:
- Things for which we have complete control
- Things for which we have no control
- Things for which we have partial control
Understanding the dichotomy of control is key to understanding the definition of Stoicism. It is the wisdom to know when we should fight and when we should surrender. When we struggle for something that we have no control over, we are wasting our time and do not have tranquility.
This Stoic wisdom echoes the Christian serenity prayer, which asks for courage to change what one can change, serenity to accept what one cannot change, and wisdom to know the difference.
Stoic beliefs and techniques logically conclude that we should focus our energy on things we do have control over, namely our goals, values, and character.
Framing & The Art of Acquiescence
If I were pressed to give a one-phrase definition of Stoicism, it might be “the art of acquiescence”. The Stoic beliefs are all interdependent, but this one specifically follows from the dichotomy of control.
The art of acquiescence is the wisdom—the skill—to gracefully accept that which you cannot control. If you can change the externals, then go ahead and do it. But if you can’t, you should focus your energy on accepting reality and framing it to prevent negative emotions.
And the Stoics did this by separating our perception into two functions. First is phantasia, the initial mental impression received by our senses. We don’t have control over this. But the perception of this, the hypolepsis, is the value judgment that we place on our mental impressions. And we do have self-control over this, even in extreme circumstances. The mindful pause is a relevant skill here as it will help prevent your automatic judgments.3
So framing is this discipline of how we interpret our life circumstances. You might not be able to prevent something bad from happening to you, but you always have freedom in how you interpret it. As Marcus says: “Choose not to be harmed —and you won’t feel harmed. Don’t feel harmed —and you haven’t been.”
Even when you have partial control over external events, the fact remains that you will always have more control over your internal framing.
And a good framing is one in which we acquiesce to reality while also safeguarding what is under our control: our psychology, our soul. Marcus regularly reminds us to protect our spirit within from negativity and false beliefs. Framing ourselves as a victim or becoming resentful will always stain our character and make us suffer more.
This points at the most powerful reframing technique in the Stoic toolbox: viewing everything that happens to you, even bad things, as a blessing instead of a curse. It is summed up beautifully by Marcus at the end of Book 4:
“So remember this principle when something threatens to cause you pain: the thing itself was no misfortune at all; to endure it and prevail is great good fortune.”
marcus aurelius
Said differently—in fact, this might also be a concise definition of Stoicism—you should believe that things happen for you and not to you.
Mortality
All of these Stoic beliefs logically lead to the most difficult acquiescence: our own mortality.
If everything is always changing, as determined by Logos, then we must apply this understanding to ourselves. We must accept the small role we play in the larger design and the brief time that we have to play it. Marcus reminds us that death is the great equalizer—that after death, Alexander the Great and his mule driver became the same, “absorbed alike into the life force of the world, or dissolved alike into atoms”.
The Stoics also believed that people fear death because they are disturbed at how they mislived. Without a philosophy of life, they probably wandered aimlessly and didn’t attain valuable goals. But with Stoicism as a guide, one can be sure to have an aim, and they will almost definitely attain virtue and tranquility. And as Marcus says, doing so will ensure that our mind “accepts death in a cheerful spirit, as nothing but the dissolution of the elements from which each living thing is composed.”
This means that the definition of Stoicism becomes personal to you and your conscience. Even if others don’t recognize it, you won’t fear death because you will know that you lived a good life.
“And if the others don’t acknowledge it—this life lived with simplicity, humility, cheerfulness —he doesn’t resent them for it, and isn’t deterred from following the road where it leads: to the end of life. An end to be approached in purity, in serenity, in acceptance, in peaceful unity with what must be.”
marcus aurelıus
Stoicism Beliefs vs. Enlightened Hedonism
In some sense, the definition of Stoicism is really framing your life to be a hero and not a victim. As a philosophy of life, it is a way of understanding your mind and the world so that you can increase your gratitude and tranquility.
The Stoics even had specific techniques to induce these emotions, which we will cover in a future article. But the zoomed-out message from this article is that even if Stoicism is not for you, you need something to guide your life. Because without any philosophy, you will probably default to what William Irvine calls enlightened hedonism, the smarter and more planned version of hedonism.
“Furthermore, whatever philosophy of life a person ends up adopting, she will probably have a better life than if she tried to live—as many people do—without a coherent philosophy of life.”
william ırvıne, a guıde to the good lıfe
And lastly, you don’t have to fully convert to Stoicism to benefit from its wisdom. Like all religions and philosophies, I think you can dine à la carte and only take the bits that work for you.
So consider Stoicism as your philosophy of life. Or simply read about Stoicism from time to time—even this is enough to find nuggets of wisdom that will change your perspective on life.